Roman Numerals to Numbers Converter

Roman Numerals to Numbers Converter

I equals 1, V equals 5, X equals 10, L equals 50, C equals 100, D equals 500, and M equals 1000. Use this Roman numerals to numbers converter to turn Roman numerals such as XXX, XLIX, MCMXCIX, and MMXXVI into ordinary numbers, or switch modes and convert a whole number from 1 to 3,999,999 back into canonical Roman notation. For values above 3999, the tool uses overlined Roman symbols, where the overline multiplies a symbol or group by 1000. The tool is designed for quick answers, but it also shows why the answer works, which symbols were added or subtracted, and whether the Roman form is canonical.

Roman numerals look decorative, but they are still a number system with rules. A reader can often guess that XXX means 30 because X is ten and three X symbols appear together. Harder cases use subtraction. IV is not 1 + 5; it is 5 - 1. XL is not 10 + 50; it is 50 - 10. This page explains that system in detail, with formulas, conversion tables, worked examples, and practical notes for clocks, dates, outlines, names, historical references, and labels.

If your Roman numeral work is part of a broader math task, a companion such as the Fractions Calculator can help when the converted number later needs to be added, compared, or simplified with other values. Roman numerals are best treated as a notation layer: first convert the symbol string into a decimal number, then do the rest of the arithmetic in the modern number system.

How to Use the Roman Numerals to Numbers Converter

1. Select Roman to Number when you have letters such as XIV or MMXXVI, or select Number to Roman when you have a whole number from 1 to 3,999,999.
2. Type the Roman numeral or whole number into the input field, using only standard Roman symbols or ordinary digits.
3. Click Convert to send the value to the server-side converter and receive the number, Roman form, place-value rows, and explanation steps.
4. Check whether the Roman form is standard. If the input is readable but nonstandard, use the suggested canonical Roman numeral.
5. Use the copy button to copy the number or Roman numeral into your worksheet, note, spreadsheet, label, or article draft.

The converter accepts standard Roman letters in either uppercase or lowercase and removes spaces before checking the numeral. That makes it forgiving for quick typing, but the result still explains the standard form. If you enter a readable but nonstandard value such as IIII, the calculator can show the interpreted number while also recommending IV. That warning is useful because many old inscriptions, clock faces, and decorative designs do not always follow modern textbook notation.

For number-to-Roman conversion, enter a whole number from 1 to 3,999,999. Values from 1 to 3999 use the common plain Roman numeral system. Larger values use overlined Roman symbols, where the overline multiplies the Roman group by 1000. The converter splits the number into place values, converts each place, and joins the pieces from left to right. That place-value view is often easier to trust than a single mysterious output string.

Roman Numeral Symbols and Values

Roman numerals use seven main symbols. Unlike decimal digits, the symbols do not change value based on column position. X always means ten, whether it appears alone as X, after another X as XX, or before L as part of XL. The value changes only because of the add-or-subtract rule created by neighboring symbols. That makes the system compact, but it also means the reader must pay attention to order.

The main repeating symbols are I, X, C, and M. They can be repeated to build one, two, or three of a place. II means 2, XXX means 30, CCC means 300, and MMM means 3000. The five-value symbols V, L, and D are not repeated in standard notation because two Vs would be X, two Ls would be C, and two Ds would be M. Repetition is allowed only when it creates a clearer standard form rather than a longer duplicate.

These values make Roman numerals feel a little like labeled measurement marks on a scale. A measuring tape does not make you invent a new symbol for every distance; it combines familiar marks. In a similar way, Roman notation combines a small set of symbols into larger values. If you often move between older labels and modern units, tools like the Feet to Inches Converter follow the same practical idea: translate the notation first, then use the value confidently.

The Core Formula for Roman Numerals

The simplest Roman numeral formula is an ordered sum. Read the numeral from left to right. If a symbol is followed by a symbol of equal or smaller value, add it. If a symbol is followed by a larger symbol, subtract it. Once every symbol has been signed as add or subtract, total the signed values. That is exactly what a Roman-to-number converter does behind the scenes.

Formula example: XIV

For XIV, X is followed by I, which is smaller, so X is added. I is followed by V, which is larger, so I is subtracted. V is last, so it is added. The calculation is 10 - 1 + 5 = 14. That is why XIV means 14 rather than 16.

Formula example: MCMXCIX

For MCMXCIX, read each piece: M = 1000, CM = 900, XC = 90, and IX = 9. The value is 1000 + 900 + 90 + 9 = 1999. When the subtractive pairs are recognized first, the long string becomes much easier to parse.

If you need to compare the converted result with a decimal, percentage, or ratio later, convert the Roman numeral first and then continue with modern arithmetic. For example, if chapter IX is 9 out of XXIV chapters, convert both values and use the Percentage Calculator to find the share as 37.5 percent. Mixing Roman strings directly into arithmetic is where mistakes start.

Subtractive Notation Rules

Subtractive notation is the part of Roman numerals that creates most confusion. The rule is not that any smaller symbol can be placed before any larger symbol. In standard modern notation, only six subtraction pairs are used: IV, IX, XL, XC, CD, and CM. These pairs keep numerals compact while preserving a predictable place-value pattern.

Notice that I can subtract only from V and X. X can subtract only from L and C. C can subtract only from D and M. That is why IC is not the standard way to write 99. The standard form is XCIX, built as 90 + 9. The same idea explains why IL is not 49. The standard form is XLIX, built as 40 + 9. A converter that warns about these forms is more helpful than one that silently accepts every possible subtraction.

Why subtraction exists

Subtraction prevents long strings. Without subtraction, 9 might become VIIII and 40 might become XXXX. Those forms are readable in some historical or decorative contexts, but they are not the modern standard taught in schools and used in most reference material. The subtractive pair gives the same value in a shorter, cleaner way.

When nonstandard forms appear

Older clocks famously use IIII instead of IV in many designs. Inscriptions may also preserve local habits, artistic spacing, or historic conventions. When exact transcription matters, keep the original Roman text. When calculation matters, convert it into the modern number and record the standard Roman form separately.

Place Value: Thousands, Hundreds, Tens, and Ones

Roman numerals do not use place value the same way decimal numbers do, but standard Roman writing can still be explained by place. To convert a modern number into Roman form, split it into thousands, hundreds, tens, and ones. Convert each place into its Roman piece, then join the pieces from largest to smallest. This is the cleanest way to create canonical Roman numerals.

Take 2026 as an example. Split it into 2000 + 20 + 6. The thousands place is MM, the tens place is XX, and the ones place is VI. Join them to get MMXXVI. This same process works for 49 as 40 + 9 = XL + IX = XLIX, and for 944 as 900 + 40 + 4 = CM + XL + IV = CMXLIV.

Place-value thinking also helps when you move between Roman numerals and measurements that must be sorted or calculated. A shelf label such as Bay IV may look like text, but if it needs to be ordered with Bay V and Bay VI in a spreadsheet, the Roman part should be converted to a number first. When the same project includes physical dimensions, a helper such as the CM to Inches Converter can keep the measurement side separate from the label-conversion side.

Common Roman Numerals from 1 to 20

The numbers from 1 to 20 are the best practice range for learning Roman numerals because they include repetition, the first two subtraction pairs, and simple combinations. Once these feel natural, larger numerals become a matter of adding tens, hundreds, and thousands in front of the same ones patterns.

A useful habit is to memorize 1 through 12 first because clocks, chapter headings, outlines, and classroom examples often stay in that range. Then add 14, 19, 40, 49, 90, and 99 as special checkpoints. These values force you to apply subtraction rather than simply stacking symbols.

Practice pattern

Read a Roman numeral aloud by chunks. XVIII becomes X + V + III, or 10 + 5 + 3 = 18. XIX becomes X + IX, or 10 + 9 = 19. The difference is only one character, but the calculation changes because I is before X in XIX.

When a lesson asks you to convert a Roman numeral and then compare it with another number, it is often helpful to keep exact fractional relationships separate. For example, if item XVI is 16 of 20, the Decimal to Fraction Calculator can turn 0.8 into 4/5 after you have already converted XVI to 16. That keeps the Roman task and the fraction task clean.

Larger Conversion Examples

Larger Roman numerals look intimidating because several rules can appear in one string. The best way to read them is to find the place-value pieces. Look for thousands first, then hundreds, then tens, then ones. Subtractive pairs often mark the end of a place: CM for 900, XC for 90, and IX for 9.

Worked example: XLIX to number

XLIX has two subtractive pairs. XL means 50 - 10 = 40. IX means 10 - 1 = 9. Add the pieces: 40 + 9 = 49. A symbol-by-symbol scan reaches the same result: X is subtracted because L follows it, L is added, I is subtracted because X follows it, and X is added. The signed total is -10 + 50 - 1 + 10 = 49.

Worked example: 1984 to Roman

Split 1984 into 1000 + 900 + 80 + 4. The pieces are M, CM, LXXX, and IV. Join them in order: MCMLXXXIV. Notice that 80 is not a subtraction value; it is LXXX because 50 + 10 + 10 + 10 = 80. Only 900 and 4 use subtraction in this example.

If you are calculating a change between two edition numbers after converting them from Roman numerals, the Percentage Change Calculator is a natural next step. Convert Edition XL to 40 and Edition L to 50 first, then calculate the increase from 40 to 50 in the ordinary decimal system.

Where Roman Numerals Show Up in Real Life

Roman numerals appear in more places than many people notice. They label clock faces, book volumes, movie sequels, monarchs, rulers, event editions, building sections, legal outlines, and decorative dates. In many of these cases, the numeral is not meant for arithmetic. It is a formal label. The converter becomes useful when that formal label needs to be read, sorted, compared, searched, or translated into a modern number.

Dates deserve special care. A movie title, monument, or copyright page may use Roman numerals for a year, but the surrounding text may not follow a calculator-friendly pattern. Convert the Roman year, then keep the original inscription if you are documenting a source. If you are calculating elapsed time between two converted dates, the Days Between Dates Calculator can handle the calendar arithmetic after the Roman numerals have been translated.

Names and titles

Names such as Henry VIII, Louis XIV, and Elizabeth II use Roman numerals as part of the title. It is useful to know that VIII means 8, XIV means 14, and II means 2, but you should not rewrite the name in ordinary text unless your style guide requires it. The Roman numeral is part of the conventional name.

Events and editions

Events often use Roman numerals to create a formal or historic feel. Super Bowl LVIII means Super Bowl 58, and Chapter XXI means Chapter 21. Convert the numeral when you need to compare order or build a database field, but preserve the display form when the official title uses Roman notation.

Common Mistakes and Standard Forms

Roman numeral mistakes usually come from overusing repetition or applying subtraction too broadly. The old habit of writing IIII for 4 appears in some clock designs, but the standard school and reference form is IV. The same problem happens with VIIII for 9, XXXX for 40, and CCCC for 400. A good converter should tell you the value and help you learn the standard form.

Another common mistake is sorting Roman numerals as plain text. Alphabetical order will not match numeric order. For example, IX, V, and X may sort oddly because the letters are being compared rather than the values 9, 5, and 10. Convert Roman numerals to ordinary numbers before sorting in spreadsheets, file names, study notes, or data tables.

Age and generation labels can create similar confusion when old documents use Roman numerals in notes. If a family document says Section IV and records a birth year in Roman notation, convert the Roman year first and then use the Age Calculator only after the date is in ordinary form. Keeping labels, dates, and age math in separate steps prevents accidental mixing.

Roman Numerals and Measurement Workflows

Roman numerals are not measurement units, but they often appear beside measurement information. A floor plan might label wings as I, II, and III while dimensions are in feet or centimeters. A product manual might use Roman sections and metric tables. A lab label might include an oxidation state in Roman numerals and a mass or density value elsewhere. The safe workflow is to treat Roman numerals as labels or count values, then handle measurements with the correct unit tools.

• For homework or worksheets, convert the numeral and show each add/subtract step because proof matters as much as the final number.
• For spreadsheet cleanup, convert Roman labels to decimal numbers before sorting because text sorting does not understand numeric order.
• For historical date notes, convert the year and keep the original Roman text beside it as a citation note.
• For design or engraving, convert the value, review the canonical Roman form, then check visual spacing before production.
• For technical labels, convert only the numeral portion and preserve the surrounding term, such as Iron(III), Chapter IV, or Louis XIV.

If a Roman-labeled section contains area measurements, convert the section label only for ordering and keep the physical area math separate. For example, Room IV may simply mean Room 4. If you then need to calculate the room's floor area, the Square Footage Calculator belongs to the measurement step, not the Roman numeral step. This separation keeps your records readable and your calculations correct.

Measurement note example

Suppose a renovation note says Hall III: 12 ft by 8 ft. First convert III to 3 only if you need a sortable room number. Then calculate 12 x 8 = 96 square feet as a separate area problem. The Roman numeral does not change the measurement; it only labels the hall.

Recipe and volume note example

A historical recipe might label sections as I, II, and III while listing quantities in cups or milliliters. Convert the section labels only if needed. For the liquid amounts, use the Cups to mL Converter or another unit tool because Roman numerals do not carry volume meaning by themselves.

How to Convert Roman Numerals Manually

Manual conversion is worth learning because it lets you check a calculator result and recognize mistakes in printed material. Start by writing each symbol's value below the numeral. Then compare each symbol with the symbol after it. If the next symbol is larger, mark the current value as negative. If the next symbol is equal or smaller, mark it as positive. Finally add the signed values.

Manual method for MCMXLIV

Write the values: M = 1000, C = 100, M = 1000, X = 10, L = 50, I = 1, V = 5. Now sign them by looking ahead. M is added because C is smaller. C is subtracted because M is larger. M is added because X is smaller. X is subtracted because L is larger. L is added because I is smaller. I is subtracted because V is larger. V is added because it is last.

After you get the number, check the canonical Roman form by splitting 1944 into 1000 + 900 + 40 + 4. That gives M + CM + XL + IV, or MCMXLIV. The original and reconstructed forms match, so the numeral is standard.

Manual method for number to Roman

To write 2768 in Roman numerals, split it into 2000 + 700 + 60 + 8. Convert each place: 2000 = MM, 700 = DCC, 60 = LX, and 8 = VIII. Join them to get MMDCCLXVIII. If you try to build the number symbol by symbol without place values, it is much easier to make a repetition or subtraction mistake.

Roman Numeral Limits and Extended Notation

This converter uses the common modern range from 1 to 3999 for plain Roman numerals, then supports larger values with overlined notation up to 3,999,999. The upper ordinary value is MMMCMXCIX, or 3999. Above that, an overline multiplies a Roman symbol or group by 1000, so V with an overline means 5000 and X with an overline means 10000.

The 3999 limit is not a mathematical limit of the Roman idea. It is a practical limit of the plain seven-symbol system without overlines. This tool applies one common extended convention: a combining overline directly after a Roman symbol multiplies that symbol by 1000. Other historical systems use bars, parentheses, apostrophus forms, or typography-specific marks, so when you are transcribing a source, keep the original form as written.

Why zero is not included

Roman numerals do not have a standard symbol for zero in the ordinary system. The notation was developed for counting, listing, and recording quantities rather than place-value arithmetic with zero as a digit. That is why the number-to-Roman mode starts at 1 rather than 0.

Why decimals are not included

Standard Roman numerals represent whole numbers. They are not designed for decimals such as 2.5 or 7.25. If your task begins with a decimal value, convert or round that value in the modern system before deciding whether a Roman numeral label makes sense.

Checking Roman Dates and Years

Roman numerals are often used for years in film credits, monuments, title pages, plaques, and formal invitations. A year written as MCMLXXXIV is 1984, while MMXXVI is 2026. The converter can turn the symbol string into a modern year quickly, but careful readers should still look at the surrounding source. A Roman year may be a publication date, a dedication date, a copyright date, a restoration date, or a ceremonial date. The numeral tells you the number; the context tells you what that number means.

To check a Roman year manually, split the numeral into recognizable year-sized chunks. MCMLXXXIV becomes M + CM + LXXX + IV, or 1000 + 900 + 80 + 4 = 1984. MMXXVI becomes MM + XX + VI, or 2000 + 20 + 6 = 2026. MDCCLXXVI becomes M + DCC + LXX + VI, or 1000 + 700 + 70 + 6 = 1776. The longer the year, the more useful it is to read in chunks instead of staring at one continuous string.

Distinguish the date from the label

A source may include multiple Roman numerals near each other. A title page might say Volume II, Chapter IV, and then give a year as MCMXCIX. Only the year should be treated as a date. Volume II means volume 2, Chapter IV means chapter 4, and MCMXCIX means 1999. When taking notes, write each Roman numeral with its role: volume, chapter, year, edition, part, section, or person. That small label prevents a clean conversion from turning into a wrong interpretation.

Why year checks need patience

Printed Roman years sometimes contain stylized letters, damaged marks, or old typography that makes C, G, I, and J look confusing. Before blaming the math, confirm the characters. A faded MCMVIII may be misread as MCMVIll if the final letters are in a decorative font. In historical work, the safest workflow is to transcribe the exact source, convert the most likely Roman numeral, and keep a note if any character is uncertain.

Canonical, Decorative, and Historical Roman Numerals

Canonical Roman numerals follow the standard rules most modern readers expect: no more than three repeated I, X, or C symbols in a row; no repeated V, L, or D; and only the six common subtraction pairs. Decorative and historical Roman numerals may break those rules for style, symmetry, local custom, or tradition. A clock face that uses IIII is not trying to teach a classroom rule; it is making a design choice. A converter can explain the standard form, but it should not erase the fact that nonstandard forms appear in real artifacts.

This distinction matters when you are copying text. If you are writing an answer to a math question, use IV for 4 and IX for 9. If you are cataloging a clock, preserve IIII if the clock face really uses IIII. If you are editing a modern article, use the official style of the title or event. If a movie title uses Part III, do not silently change it to Part 3 unless the editorial style requires Arabic numerals. The correct choice depends on whether your task is calculation, transcription, or presentation.

Canonical form for calculation

Use canonical form when a number will be checked by another person, compared with a table, entered into software, printed on a worksheet, or used in a formal explanation. Canonical notation removes avoidable ambiguity. XLIX is immediately recognizable as 49 to someone who knows the rules. IL may be guessed as 49 by some readers, but it violates the usual subtraction limits and may be marked wrong in an educational setting.

Decorative form for faithful display

Use decorative or original form when the form itself is part of the object. A museum note, restoration report, image caption, or product description may need to preserve the exact inscription. In that case, convert the value in a note but keep the visual Roman text unchanged. A clean record might say: clock face reads IIII; standard value is 4; canonical Roman form is IV.

Data Entry, Sorting, and Accessibility

Roman numerals are attractive in headings, but they can be awkward in databases, spreadsheets, and accessibility workflows. Software usually reads Roman numerals as text unless a special conversion rule has been written. That means Section X may sort before Section V, and Part IX may be treated as a word rather than as the number 9. The clean solution is to store two fields when the data matters: one display field with the Roman numeral and one numeric field with the converted number.

A database record might store display_label = Chapter IX and chapter_number = 9. A spreadsheet might keep the visible column as Volume XIV but add a hidden or adjacent column with 14. A website table might show Louis XIV while using the value 14 for sorting. This pattern gives readers the traditional style while giving software the numeric value it needs. It also makes filtering, ordering, and comparison much easier later.

Screen reader clarity

Accessibility is another reason to keep Roman numerals clear. A screen reader may announce letters individually, pronounce a familiar numeral correctly, or handle the string differently depending on context and settings. If the numeral is central to understanding, nearby text can help. For example, a sentence such as Chapter XIV, chapter 14 in the series, gives both the original style and the meaning without forcing the reader to decode the numeral alone.

File naming and search

File names are safer when they include ordinary numbers. A folder named Part IX may look good, but Part 09 is easier to sort next to Part 10. If you want both forms, use a combined pattern such as Part 09 - IX. That gives humans the Roman style and gives operating systems a stable numeric order. The same principle works for slide decks, lesson files, image sets, manuscript folders, and edition notes.

Teaching Roman Numerals Step by Step

Roman numerals are easier to teach when learners see the system as a small set of rules rather than a list of random symbols. Start with I, V, and X. Show 1 through 12 because that range connects naturally to clock faces. Then introduce the idea that a smaller symbol before a larger one means subtraction. Once IV and IX make sense, move to X, L, and C for tens, then C, D, and M for hundreds and thousands.

A strong lesson rhythm is read, build, check, and explain. First read a numeral such as XIV. Then build a number such as 14 from scratch. Next check the result with a converter. Finally explain the reasoning in words. This cycle prevents learners from memorizing isolated answers without understanding why they work. It also makes mistakes more useful because a wrong form can be compared with the canonical form immediately.

Use contrast pairs

Contrast pairs sharpen the rule. Compare VI and IV, XI and IX, LX and XL, CX and XC. In each pair, the same symbols appear, but the order changes the operation. VI is 6 because V is followed by smaller I. IV is 4 because I is before larger V. Once that pattern is visible, learners can apply it to larger numerals without treating every string as a new memorization problem.

Use place-value reconstruction

For larger numbers, ask learners to reconstruct the numeral from the decimal number. Give 944 and split it as 900 + 40 + 4. Then write CM + XL + IV. This method is slower at first, but it produces better habits. It also prepares learners to spot nonstandard shortcuts such as IM for 999, because they know the standard place-value form should be CMXCIX.

Quality Checklist Before You Use a Roman Numeral

Before using a Roman numeral in a worksheet, design, engraving, legal outline, article, or product label, run through a short quality check. The goal is not only to get the right number. The goal is to make sure the notation matches the context and will be understood by the intended reader.

• Confirm the intended number in ordinary decimal form.
• Convert the number into Roman notation by place value.
• Check subtractive pairs: IV, IX, XL, XC, CD, and CM.
• Avoid repeating I, X, or C four times in standard notation.
• Avoid repeating V, L, or D.
• Keep names and official titles in their conventional Roman form.
• Use ordinary numbers for arithmetic, sorting, and spreadsheet formulas.

If you are working with family timelines or historical records, Roman numerals may also appear near generation labels. Convert the numeral first, then use a tool such as the Generations Calculator only when you have the relevant birth year or date in ordinary form. Roman numerals can label a person, section, or source, but they do not replace the date data needed for generational analysis.

Design spacing tip

Roman numerals can have very different visual widths. VIII is wider than IX even though it represents a smaller number. If you are engraving, printing, or placing a Roman numeral in a button, badge, or title block, test the final text visually. A correct numeral can still look cramped if the layout was designed around a shorter example.

FAQ

What is XXX in numbers?

XXX equals 30. X means 10, and three X symbols together mean 10 + 10 + 10. Because each X is followed by an equal or smaller value, all three symbols are added rather than subtracted.

What is MMXXVI in numbers?

MMXXVI equals 2026. MM is 2000, XX is 20, and VI is 6. Add the place-value pieces together: 2000 + 20 + 6 = 2026. The numeral is already in standard Roman form.

Why does IV mean 4 instead of 6?

IV means 4 because I appears before the larger symbol V, so I is subtracted from V. The calculation is 5 - 1 = 4. If the I came after V, as in VI, the value would be 5 + 1 = 6.

Can Roman numerals represent zero?

The standard Roman numeral system does not use a normal symbol for zero. It was built for counting and labeling whole quantities, not for decimal place-value arithmetic. That is why this converter starts at 1, even when extended overlined notation is enabled.

What is the largest number this converter supports?

This converter supports plain Roman numerals from 1 to 3999 and overlined Roman notation up to 3,999,999. The largest plain value is MMMCMXCIX, which equals 3999. Above that, overlined symbols multiply the Roman group by 1000.

Is IIII wrong for 4?

IIII is readable and appears on some clock faces, but IV is the standard modern form for 4. If you are copying a historical or decorative source, preserve what is printed. If you are writing a normal answer, worksheet, or reference value, use IV.

How do I convert a number to Roman numerals?

Split the number into thousands, hundreds, tens, and ones. Convert each nonzero place value into its Roman piece, then join the pieces from largest to smallest. For example, 944 becomes 900 + 40 + 4, or CM + XL + IV = CMXLIV.

Are lowercase Roman numerals accepted?

Yes. The converter normalizes lowercase letters to uppercase before calculating. For example, xiv is treated as XIV and converts to 14. The displayed Roman output uses uppercase because uppercase is the clearest standard form.

Should I use Roman numerals in spreadsheets?

Use Roman numerals as display labels only. For sorting, formulas, comparisons, and charts, convert them into ordinary numbers first. Spreadsheet software treats Roman numerals as text unless you create a separate numeric value.

Final Thoughts

A Roman numerals to numbers converter is most useful when it does more than return a single answer. The answer matters, but the rule behind it matters too. Once you understand that smaller-before-larger means subtraction and otherwise symbols are added, numerals such as XLIX, CMXLIV, and MMXXVI stop feeling cryptic. They become ordered pieces that can be checked, explained, and reused.

Use Roman numerals when the style, tradition, or label calls for them. Use ordinary numbers when you need arithmetic, sorting, measurement, or spreadsheet work. Moving cleanly between those two roles is the real purpose of this page: preserve the look of Roman notation where it belongs, and translate it into modern numbers whenever accuracy and calculation matter.